Brian,
If you have the capability, I would also drain all water out of your sump, wipe it down well, then refill... before getting your return back running again as well. Just to be safe!
As for why a GFCI didn't trip before a breaker;
In my understanding... GFCI's are our safety circuits for when something in our tanks short out to ground. Your circuit breaker trips when that circuit is pulling more amps than that circuit is rated for. I would guess there is no path directly to ground from your sump... so when your heater broke, it instantly drew more amps... tripping the circuit breaker. If there would of been most likely a fraction of a second longer, yet no added amperage draw (above the rating of your circuit breaker), current would of found a way to ground, and it would of been your GFCI that had tripped.
I'm sure this is a very simplified explanation... and hopefully one that isn't too simple for those that are perfectionists here... but one that helped you understand how both a circuit breaker, and the GFCI's help protect us on our tanks.